Tourism in Antarctica: facts, concerns, and challenges

The few people that have the opportunity to visit Antarctica do so for a variety of reasons including scientific, operational, and recreational. This means that, when analyzing Antarctic tourism, it is essential to define what we understand by ‘tourist’. The following groups of visitors to Antarctica usually fall under the label of tourist [1], [2]:

(1) individuals who come to Antarctica on a cruise ship.

(2) those who travel in large-capacity passenger planes and those who use small aircraft, even when they are limited to performing overflights.

(3) specialized expeditions, including mountaineers, climbers, extreme sports practitioners, skiers, etc.

(4) visits by representatives of the media, photographers, and artists; and, finally,

(5) unofficial or recreational visits made by scientists or support personnel temporarily residing in Antarctica.

The first three categories could be included in what is called commercial tourism and make up the majority of tourist visitors. The other two types of tourists are more peculiar cases and difficult to assess, usually not being included in the general tourism figures. Although these latter categories contribute a relatively small proportion of the numbers of visitors, they do increase the pressure on certain Antarctic sites.

Commercial tourism in Antarctica began in the late 1950s when the first documented tourist flight to Antarctica, operated by LAN-Chile from Punta Arenas,  overflew the South Shetlands and the Antarctic Peninsula [3]. The origin of cruise-based tourism was in January 1958, when the Argentine ship Les Éclaireurs carried 98 passengers from Argentina to the South Shetland Islands and the Antarctic Peninsula. However, the modern era of cruise-based Antarctic tourism began with the trip organized in 1966 by Lars-Eric Lindblad aboard the Argentine ship Lapataia, from which the concept of the expedition cruise was created [4].

Antarctic tourism has increased exponentially over the last few decades (Figure 1). There were four periods of significant growth, one during the mid-1990s, other in the period 2003-2008, and then again in the years immediately preceding and following the worldwide SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. To date, the number of tourists going to Antarctica has been primarily determined by market forces influenced by the health of the world’s economy, with an evident dip following the 2008 global financial crisis [5]. Another important factor in this decrease was the MARPOL (International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships) Annex I ban on the use and carriage of heavy fuel oil in the Antarctic Treaty area as of 1 August 2011, since when several cruise-only programmes have left the Antarctic tourist circuit [6]. Tourists are drawn from a range of nations, with U.S.A. nationals making up the largest sector, followed by China, Australia, the United Kingdom, Germany, Canada, France, Netherlands, Japan, and New Zealand [7]. After a temporary hiatus caused by the pandemic, the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO) reported a total of 104,897 tourists visiting the region in the 2022-23 season, the highest number recorded. To put this number in context, up to 2001 it was estimated that

less than 200,000 people had ever visited Antarctica, including explorers, adventurers, scientists, support personnel, whalers, and tourists. 

The five main Antarctic Gateway cities are Ushuaia (Argentina), Punta Arenas (Chile), Hobart (Australia), Christchurch (New Zealand), and Cape Town (South Africa), although most tourism operations commence their Antarctic itineraries at the first of these gateways. All these cities have strong connections to Antarctica because of their roles in concentrating transit to and from the icy continent, both in contemporary times, and historically. They receive important contributions to their economies through Antarctic tourism, but also bear significant environmental and social costs [11].

The seven-month Antarctic tourism season, from October to April, coincides with the austral summer and, from an ecological perspective, with the peak breeding or growth season for several Antarctic wildlife populations of fauna and flora. Most of the tourism in Antarctica is concentrated on ice-free coastal zones around the Antarctic Peninsula (Figure 2), which is the closest region to South America and possesses diverse scenery and abundant wildlife. This causes a concentration of visitors in specific routes and sites along this region [12]. An estimated that 77% of all landings occur on only approximately 2 km² of the 14 million km² of the Antarctic continent [13]. The Ross Sea is the other Antarctic region that is visited regularly by tourist cruises, although to a much lesser extent, with only 1,066 tourists in 2022-23 season according to IAATO [6]. Tourist cruises to the Ross Sea region of Antarctica are typically three or more weeks long and much more expensive than visits to the Antarctic Peninsula region. An even smaller number of expeditions reach the Weddell Sea and East Antarctica.

Ship-based tourism, which can include activities such as landings, small boat cruising or kayaking in conjunction with the cruise, is the dominant form of tourism, and included 65,123 tourists in the 2022-23 season [6]. In addition, 32,730 tourists visited the Antarctic on cruise-only vessels in the 2022-23 season, without making landings (Figure 2). A relatively recent addition to the suite of tourism offerings is that of air-cruise tourism, with flights transporting tourists to cruise ships at King George Island in the South Shetland Islands. This diversifies not only the mode of transport, but also the length and character of itineraries in Antarctica. In the 2022-23 season, 6,114 tourists visited the region via air-cruise tourism. This option is potentially attractive because it removes the four days at sea crossing the Drake Passage, the often very rough body of water between South America and the South Shetland Islands.

From December to February, visitors can fly from Punta Arenas, Chile, to Antarctica in 2 hours, allowing a day visit to King George Island or combining the expedience of flying with the experience of exploring Antarctica by small expedition ship over several days. There is even the opportunity of flying to the South Pole, which receives less than 500 visitors per year. The trip from Punta Arenas to the South Pole takes 10 hours, plus a stopover to refuel. Tourists can also fly from Cape Town to the South Pole via Dronning Maud Land.

Tourists can also visit the Antarctic on private yachts or sailing vessels and there were 109 such visitors reported by IAATO in the 2022-23 season. However, this number is likely to be a minimum amount since it does not include all tourists who use this option as some yachts and sailing vessels are not IAATO members and some do not inform the relevant authorities of their visit to Antarctica, and so they are outside the official reported statistics.

The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty is the legal text devoted to environmental protection within the Antarctic Treaty System. It applies to all human activities, including tourism and non-governmental activities that take place within the Antarctic Treaty area involving citizens of Treaty Parties. According to the Protocol, all visitors must avoid the taking of or harmful interference with flora and fauna, prevent the introduction of non-native species and diseases, follow all waste management provisions, comply with the regulations concerning Antarctic Specially Protected Areas (ASPAs) and Antarctic Specially Managed Areas (ASMAs), and plan and conduct all operations in a safe and environmentally responsible manner. Based on Article 8 and Annex I of the Madrid Protocol, tour operators must present an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of their proposed activities to their National Competent Authorities, the domestic regulatory bodies that are responsible for permitting activities in the Antarctic [15].  Tourism operators also have important obligations under relevant international shipping regulations established under the International Maritime Organization (IMO), including the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) and the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code).

The annual Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCMs) constitute the most important decision-making forum for tourism in the Antarctic. At these meetings, Measures (legally binding), Decisions, and Resolutions (not legally binding) are discussed and adopted by consensus by Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties (ATCPs). To date, two specific Measures that focus specifically on Antarctic tourism have been adopted: Measure 4 (2004) on “Insurance and Contingency Planning for Tourism and Non-governmental Activities in the Antarctic Treaty Area”, and Measure 15 (2009) on “Landing of Persons from Passenger Vessels in the Antarctic Treaty Area” ; neither of these measures have entered into effect as this requires their implementation in legislation by all ATCPs[15]. From 1995 to date, numerous Decisions and Resolutions specifically pertaining to tourism matters were adopted by the Treaty Parties [15], [16], [17]. These describe the conditions under which tourist groups could be granted permission to visit research stations, identified acceptable tourism practices, established visitor site guidelines, or advise against permanent facilities for tourism and other non-governmental activities in Antarctica, among other issues. Other important documents related to the tourism activity are the Visitor Site Guidelines. These guidelines are proposed by Treaty Parties in conjunction with IAATO and have become an essential tool for tour operators. They contain instructions for visitors on how they should conduct visits in the most frequently visited Antarctic sites, taking into account site-specific sensitivities, safety considerations, and environmental values. Importantly however, from a regulatory perspective, there are currently no overall regulations that restrict the number of ships or tourists that can travel to Antarctica in a season.

The Antarctic Treaty System provides a regulatory framework for tourism. While operator activities are permitted by national competent authorities, the day-to-day operational management of Antarctic tourism is mostly self-regulated by a tourism industry body: IAATO [5]. This association, founded in 1991 by seven private Antarctic tour operators, is now an organization made up of more than 100 member companies that aims to advocate and promote the practice of safe and environmentally responsible private-sector travel to the Antarctic. IAATO is an invited Expert at ATCMs and are active participants in the meetings. IAATO also provides to its members comprehensive guidelines on biosecurity measures, wildlife watching, waste management, and appropriate behaviour for visitors in the region. Such guidelines are intended to minimize human impacts on the continent and to protect wildlife. IAATO has demonstrated the ability to make decisions in an active, responsive, and flexible way, fostering cooperation between its members to ensure the protection of the environment and using its extensive experience and operational knowledge in the Antarctic region. However, concerns have been expressed [18] about self-regulation by a tourism body, since it could bring the prioritising of the commercial interests of tour operators.

One of the key challenges is the questions of whether it is necessary to limit the number and the range of activities of tourists visiting Antarctica. However, the absolute number of tourists is not the only factor to consider. Other concerns are the potential expansion in the number of visited sites, the extension of the tourist season to accommodate a greater number of vessels and visitors, the increase in environmental risks and concern for the safety of the ships due to the increase in maritime traffic, or the diversification of activities to offer exclusive experiences not marketed by other competitors.  

Currently, there is not a procedure within the ATCM to control the total numbers of visitors [19] and IAATO’s remit does not extend to restricting the total numbers of visitors. Therefore, from a regulatory perspective, there is concern over the long-term effectiveness and sufficiency of self-regulation to protect Antarctic ecosystems from the impacts of tourism [18], [19]. Practically from the moment of its creation, IAATO has designed different tools to respond to the increase in visitor numbers (Figure 4). However, the rapid and ongoing increase in tourist numbers and the spatial and temporary concentration of Antarctic tourism places additional pressures on this process. For example, IAATO created a “Ship Scheduler” to coordinate the maritime traffic and landings at popular visitor sites in line with the Site Visitor Guidelines and ATCM Resolution 4 (2021) and Resolution 2 (2022). Initially, this tool was created with just two landing time-slots per day, morning and afternoon. However, as the number of ships increased, the defined visitation timeslots also raised [5], although never exceeding the limits set by the ATCM, which are usually a maximum of 2-3 ships visit per day. Also, ships cannot make landings as part of this scheduler if they have more than 500 passengers, consistent with ATCM Measure 15 (2009). As demand continues growing, this will place increased pressure on the voluntary participation with coordination of the scheduler, especially if the demand for time slots exceeds availability.

The growing complexity and volume of Antarctic tourism and non-governmental activities are placing increasing pressure on effective supervision and enforcement, introducing doubts about the role of National Competent Authorities in ensuring compliance [15]. In this regard, a need to enhance compliance of extant regulations has been pointed out [20], and a move from a more reactive to a more proactive management has been proposed [5]. While individual Treaty Parties have the responsibility to exercise control over activities that they allow in the Antarctic through their permitting roles there remains a challenge in achieving greater overall coordination and a shared vision of the future for Antarctic tourism. Some Parties within the Antarctic Treaty System, conservation organisations, and scientists are concerned about the current self-regulation model, indicating that it may no longer be sufficient (e.g., [2], [15], [16], [18], [19]). In 2023 the ATCM XLV in Helsinki acknowledged the concerns arising from the growth, diversification and compliance in relation to Antarctic tourism and agreed to have a dedicated process for the development of a comprehensive and consistent framework for the regulation of Antarctic tourism, reflecting the growing interest in this issue among a broad spectrum of the international community (ATCM Decision 6 (2023)). A part of this decision includes the establishment of a new working group within the ATCM to discuss the development of the tourism framework.